The spread of capitalism and the
increasing need for technology manipulated in part by
globalization through transnational trade have significantly influenced in the
last few decades the widespread, indiscriminate, and illegal trading of electronic waste to mostly developing countries from developed countries (Frandsen, Rasmussen, and Swart 2011;
Azuka 2009; Agyeman and Carmin 2008). Most developing countries in Sub-Saharan
Africa (SSA) unlike their counterparts in the ‘West’ are trying to catch up
with various mechanisms of globalization, which include, but is not limited
to technological advancement and bridging the digital divide to promote economic growth, modernity, and development (Azuka 2009). As a result of this process, electronic materials that have long lived the period of their functionality have been shipped at an unprecedented scale to developing countries including China and India over the last few decades (Azuka 2009; EIA 2011; Li 2008). This is becoming a serious phenomenal
in most countries in SSA, which include South Africa, Nigeria, and Ghana as the vast growing illegal importers of e-waste on the continent (Azuka 2009; Akuru and Okoro 2010).
Source: Journeyman Pictures
Electronic waste is described as any electrical or electronic device that is considered discarded and cannot be used (Akuru and Okoro 2010). Electronic waste is shipped illegally into developing countries eager to reuse these devices. Some electronic waste may contain chemical substances such as lead, cadmium, beryllium, or Brominated Flame Retardants (BFR) (Azuka 2009). The disposal and recycling of electronic waste in developed countries may pose significant risk to workers and communities (EIA 2011). This is even worst in developing countries where the necessary infrastructures and technological systems to adequately recycle and dispose e-waste are lacking and non-existent.
This
paper explores the emerging e-waste hub in Ghana as well as social movements,
such as Greenpeace, Captain Planet Foundation and local grassroots youth initiatives
that seek to create public education and awareness of the environmental and
health hazards associated with the indiscriminate disposal and inappropriate
handling and management of e-waste.
Electronic
waste (e-waste) contains hazardous materials and substances such as lead,
mercury and cadmium, which are extremely detrimental to human health and the
environment (Agyeman and Carmin 2008). The Ghanaian government through the
Ministry of Spatial Planning, Housing and Environment lacks the appropriate
legal framework to regulate 'discarded electronic gadgets' (e-waste) once they are no longer useful. E-waste
that cannot be recycle end up in drainage systems, water sources and throughout
land in various communities causing not only health and environmental concerns,
but also extensive cost on local communities to clear up.
Globally,
it is estimated that developed countries produce between 20 million to 50
million tonnes of electronic waste, most of which are illegally shipped to developing
countries in dying need of these technologies without due regard to the adverse
health and environmental impacts (Agyeman and Carmin 2008; EIA 2011). Most developing countries are the
targeted destinations for the disposal of the electronic waste produced and
used in developed countries (Agyeman and Carmin 2008; Frandsen, Rasmussen, and Swart 2011;
Akuru and Okoro 2010).
Source: Greenpeace, Basel Action Network, 2010
In
Ghana specifically, a study estimates that 600 forty feet super containers are shipped
to Accra, Ghana on a monthly basis (Frandsen, Rasmussen, and Swart 2011). Among the countries that export used
electronic devices to Ghana, the United States, the United Kingdom, Belgium,
the Netherlands, Italy and Spain are on top of the list (Frandsen, Rasmussen, and Swart 2011). Findings reported in one study suggest
that e-waste exported from the US, UK, Denmark and Sweden were previously owned
by universities, private institutions, municipalities and companies (Frandsen, Rasmussen, and Swart 2011).
Source: Electronic Waste Guide
A
local community in Accra called ‘Agbogbloshie’ is the largest e-waste dumpsite and
transaction hub located in the country with population in the thousands. The workers
in this informal sector compose of approximately 40 per cent children who are
more vulnerable to environmental contaminants and exposure to toxic chemicals
that are found within the hardware of electronic devises (Frandsen, Rasmussen, and Swart 2011;
Agyeman and Carmin 2008). Exposures to these toxic chemicals can
also cause long-term health effects that are usually irretrievable and can lead
to miscarriages, infertility, and birth defeats, endocrine disease as well as
growth of tumors that could result into cancer (Agyeman and Carmin 2008; PANOS 2010).
Video Source:
http://www.pbs.org/frontlineworld/stories/ghana804/video/video_index.html
Very
few have been written in the literature about the environmental and health
implications of e-waste and social movements within the context of SSA (Edge 2010). This could be partly due to the lack of
public awareness and education of the environmental and health implications of the
inappropriate and indiscriminate management and disposal of e-waste. However,
the aspirations and zeal of people living in developing countries to have
access to electronic devices continuously sustains and fuels this informal
sector.
Relatively,
the introduction of the computer technology in most communities in countries in
SSA is still a new concept and social reality and the e-waste situation in
Ghana as is in India, China, South Africa and Nigeria (Azuka 2009). Not everyone in SSA countries to can
afford to purchase a brand new personal computer or other electronic devices,
such as a brand new mobile phone and other electronic gadgets. Most people
usually purchase use computers, usually purchasing the central processing units
(CPUs) separately from the monitors before assembling the parts at home. In
Ghana for example, a used computer that has long lived its life span can be
purchased ranging from $50.00 to $100.00 USD depending on the capacity of the
hard drive, memory size and processor speed. The higher the parts of the computer
central processing unit in terms of workload capacity and performance the
higher the price of the entire central processing unit. The parts of e-waste in
the containers that cannot be used or sold and recycled are indiscriminately
disposed in the local environment or burned openly, which causes air pollutions
and lung diseases.
Most
governments of countries in SSA lack the ability to appropriately regulate the
illegal importation of e-waste in the country. Specifically, Ghana does not
have a legal framework to deal with the e-waste crisis in the country. There is
lack of information in the literature with respect to programs and services put
in place to effectively mitigate the environmental and health damages and
implications caused by the indiscriminate, widespread and poor management of
e-waste. In fact, a study suggests that the entire country has only one recycling
facility with a limited workforce (Frandsen, Rasmussen, and Swart 2011). With a population of about 24 million
people, Ghana is growing at an unprecedented rate and at the current pace and
trend of e-waste importation in Ghana, if the government cannot institute a
framework to address mitigate e-waste disposal and management, there will be an
environmental and health disaster within regions and communities where these
e-waste dumpsites are located (Prakash and Manhart 2010; Azuka 2009; Agyeman and Carmin 2008). The following video is a projection of the actual trajectory of the digital divide in our world today and portrays how discarded electronic devices from one part of the global are been shipped and causing several socioeconomic, environmental and health related outcomes mostly in developing countries.
Source: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rL8dOdTPt9A
It
should be noted here that the affordability of a personal computer through
those who work at e-waste dumpsites in Ghana is a social reality; that is, a
dream come true no matter if that computer was made in the 1980s or not. Having
a computer at home makes an individual “the guy” or “the lady” of the civilized
world. However, the main question that needs to be asked is does the
acquisition of a personal computer through this means justifies the
environmental and health hazards that are associated with being exposed to
toxic and carcinogenic chemicals? To us as social change agents and
environmentalists no! But, for rural and urban poor individuals in a fast
growing, poverty engulfed communities; the answer is a big Yes! Most Ghanaian prefers
to purchase used computers from individuals who work at the e-waste dumpsites
instead of purchasing a brand new computer because of the high prices. When I
was in Ghana about six (6) years ago, I once purchased a used computer for
personal use from a middleman who occasionally visits the sites. The prices are
affordable and most people prefer spending less than more in this harsh
economic time.
The
importation of e-waste in most developing countries is illegally done usually
with someone who is an insider within the government agencies who authorize
containers with e-waste into the country (Laha 2009). An interesting issue is that the
importation of e-waste in Ghana is illegal, but yet e-waste is been shipped
every month in super containers at the Tema Port Authority (TPA) in Tema, Ghana.
The TPA is the government’s agency with the mandate and responsibilities of
inspecting every container that is at the port. Nevertheless, e-waste continued
to be released from the port unchecked, which is usually done through a systematic
bribery of port authorities.
The desires to acquire and possess
electronic gadgets have been on the rise in most developing countries where the
population is growing unprecedentedly and people are curious to have access to ‘end
of life’ electronic devices illegally imported from developed countries no
matter the associated perceived dangers with these usually chemical-intense
electronic devices, which has both negative and positive consequences and this
is influenced by the spread of technology and the desire to become ‘modernized’
through the use of electronic devices.
In most instances, electronic waste
is largely part of the informal sector generating immense economic gains for
those that run the business, but poses environmental and health threats to
local inhabitants where the storage sites are located, to the environment and
those who work in the storage facilities
(Azuka 2009; Agyeman and Carmin 2008). With limited environmental and social
impact assessments conducted by governments of developing countries on
electronic waste, e-wastes are openly stored in the environment of urban
communities where unaware consumers flock into these open sites to purchase
discarded electronic materials for reuse (EIA 2011; Li 2008).
In
Ghana for example, the importation of electronic waste from developed countries
such as the United States of America, Canada, the United Kingdom, Germany and
the Netherlands is a productive business that promotes the Ghanaian economy,
but displaced urban populations, cause extreme environmental damage in terms of
land and water pollution and negative health outcomes. It seems like people do
not recognize the health and environmental security implications of e-waste in
their backyard, drainage systems and water sources. Do they really care about
their personal health and the health of the environment? The answers to these
questions and doubts about people who live and work in e-waste dumpsites are
rooted deeply within the socioeconomic and digital divides in Ghana. Ghana has
one of Africa’s fastest growing population and economy. There is a crucial need
for the government to formulate a framework that would regulate the informal
e-waste distribution chain. The government as well as local organizations,
youth led institutions, human rights activists and agents of change need to be
proactive in addressing the e-waste scheme in Ghana.
In
terms of social and environmental movements to address the e-waste problem in
Ghana, very little is found on the issue. There seems to be lack of public
awareness and education of the dangers that are associated with the e-waste dilemma.
Greenpeace and Captain Planet and the Planeteers are organizations that are
working with local groups in Ghana to create public awareness, education and
clean-up campaigns. Recently, environmental activists Barbara Y.E. Pyle of Captain Planet visited Ghana in February and
held several local actions to create public awareness for self-action. Unlike
South Africa, where there has been extensive progress in mitigating the e-waste
scheme, Ghana still has lots to do because currently, the government does not
have a single legal framework to address this problem.
Personally,
I am more interested in this topic for my master thesis towards my degree in environmental
science and policy. It would be interesting to conduct a study to explore the extend
to which e-waste manifests itself as a productive business within the informal
sector and at the same time creating serious and severe health and
environmental consequences that outweighs the potential benefits, which are short-term.
Works Cited
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